Subordinating Conjunctions

 Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are a little more complex than coordinating conjunctions. These subordinate conjunctions connect a dependent clause to an independent clause.

Main (independent) clauses and subordinate (dependent) clauses

Main (or independent) clauses can form sentences on their own. They aren’t dependent on other clauses. They are always finite (they must contain a verb which shows tense).

Subordinate (or dependent) clauses cannot form sentences on their own. They are dependent on main clauses to form sentences. They can be finite or non-finite (the main clauses are in bold; the subordinate clauses are underlined):

• I didn’t go to work because I wasn’t feeling very well.
• He studied violin and mathematics before taking a medical degree and doing postgraduate work in biophysics at Harvard.
• She had pretty hair and must have been nice-looking when she was young.
• If I tell him will he be angry?

Comparison/ Concession/ Contrast

Than : used to introduce the second part of a comparison

• I'm older than her.
• He loves me more than you do.
• He is cleverer than I am.

Rather than : instead of somebody/something

• I think I'll have a cold drink rather than coffee.
• Why didn't you ask for help, rather than trying to do it on your own?
• I chose to learn German rather than French.

Whether : used to express a doubt or choice between two possibilities

• He seemed undecided whether to go or stay.
• It remains to be seen whether or not this idea can be put into practice.
• I asked him whether he had done it all himself or whether someone had helped him.
• I'll see whether she's at home (= or not at home).
• It's doubtful whether there'll be any seats left.

As much as : used to say that something is difficult to do

• No dessert for me, thanks. It was as much as I could do to finish the main course.
• He doesn’t earn as much as me.

Whereas : used to compare or contrast two facts

• Some of the studies show positive results, whereas others do not.
• We thought she was arrogant, whereas in fact she was just very shy.
• Elliot is tall and blond, whereas his brother is short and has dark hair.

Although / Even though / Though : despite the fact that

You can use these words to show contrast between two clauses or two sentences. Though is used more in spoken than in written English. You can use although, even though and though at the beginning of a sentence or clause that has a verb. Notice where the comma goes:

• Although/​Even though/​Though everyone played well, we lost the game.
• We lost the game although/​even though/​though everyone played well.
• Anne was fond of Tim, though he often annoyed her.
• Though she gave no sign, I was sure she had seen me.
• His clothes, though old and worn, looked clean and of good quality.
• Strange though it may sound, I was pleased it was over.

Time

After : at a time later than something; when something has finished

• I'll call you after I've spoken to them.
• Several years after they'd split up they met again by chance in Paris.
• Mary closed his diary after writing about that day’s events.

Before : earlier than the time when

• Do it before you forget.
• Did she leave a message before she went?
• Before I made a decision, I thought carefully about it.
• He always feeds the dogs before he goes to school.

By the time : We use by the time, meaning ‘when’, to connect an action that has happened or will have happened before a second action. The action that happened second comes after by the time.

• By the time you wake up, I’ll have finished work! (When you wake up, I will have finished work)
• Unfortunately the man had died by the time the ambulance arrived. (When the ambulance arrived, the man had already died.)
• By the time ambulancemen arrived, he was unconscious.

Now that: because the thing mentioned is happening or has just happened

• Now that the kids have left home we've got a lot of extra space.
• You can go and play now that you have finished your homework.

Once : as soon as; when

• We didn't know how we would cope once the money had gone.
• The water is fine once you're in!
• Once you learn it, you never forget.

Since : (used with the present perfect, past perfect or simple present tense in the main clause) from an event in the past until a later past event, or until now

• Cath hasn't phoned since she went to Berlin.
• It was the first time I'd had visitors since I'd moved to London.
• It's twenty years since I've seen her.
• How long is it since we last went to the theatre?
• She had been worrying ever since the letter arrived.
• Mary has danced since she was five.

Till: up to the point in time or the event mentioned

• Can't you wait till we get home?
• Just wait till you see it. It's great.
• James lived with his parents till he was twenty – five.

Until: up to the point in time or the event mentioned

• Let's wait until the rain stops.
• Until she spoke I hadn't realized she wasn't English.
• You're not going out until you've finished this.
• You can stay on the bus until you reach London.

When : at or during the time that / after/ at any time that; whenever / although

• I loved history when I was at school. 
• Call me when you've finished. 
• Can you spare five minutes when it's convenient? 
• He had just drifted off to sleep when the phone rang. 
• How can they expect to learn anything when they never listen? 
• She claimed to be 18, when I know she's only 16.

Whenever: at any time that; on any occasion that

• You can ask for help whenever you need it.
• Whenever she comes, she brings a friend.
• The roof leaks whenever it rains.
• Whenever we go abroad, we take as many pictures as possible.

While : during the time that something is happening; at the same time as something else is happening

• We must have been burgled while we were asleep.
• Her parents died while she was still at school.
• While I was waiting at the bus stop, three buses went by in the opposite direction.
• You can go swimming while I'm having lunch.
• While I was walking to the market, I met Jenny.

While and Whilst

While and whilst mean the same when we use them as conjunctions. They both mean ‘during the time that something else happens’, or ‘in contrast with something else’. While is much more common than whilst, and whilst sounds more formal: 

• Would you like something to eat while we’re waiting? 

• (less common: … whilst we’re waiting?) (during the time we’re waiting)

While or when

While (or whilst) means ‘during the time when something else happens’. When can mean the same as while, but when can also refer to a point in time.

• The phone rang while/when we were having dinner.
• When the phone rang, she answered it immediately.
• Not: While the phone rang …

Place

Where : the place or situation in which

• This is where I live.
• Sit where I can see you.
• Where people were concerned, his threshold of boredom was low.
• That's where (= the point in the argument at which) you're wrong.
• This is the park where we played.

Wherever : in any place and in all places that

• Sit wherever you like.
• He comes from Boula, wherever that may be (= I don't know where it is).
• Wherever she goes, there are crowds of people waiting to see her.
• Wherever you go in the world, you’ll always find someone who speaks English.

Condition

If : used to say that one thing can, will or might happen or be true, depending on another thing happening or being true

• If you see him, give him this note.
• I'll only stay if you offer me more money.
• If necessary I can come at once.
• You can stay for the weekend if you like.
• If anyone calls, tell them I'm not at home.
• If he improved his IT skills, he'd (= he would) easily get a job.
• You would know what was going on if you'd (= you had) listened.
• They would have been here by now if they'd caught the early train.
• If I was in charge, I'd do things differently.
• (rather formal) If I were in charge…

if / whetherBoth if and whether are used in reporting questions which expect ‘yes’ or ‘no’ as the answer:

• She asked if/​whether I wanted a drink.,

although whether sounds more natural with particular verbs such as discuss, consider and decide. When a choice is offered between alternatives, if or whether can be used:

• We didn’t know if/​whether we should write or phone.

In this last type of sentence, whether is usually considered more formal and more suitable for written English.

Only if : (rather formal) used to state the only situation in which something can happen

• Only if the red light comes on is there any danger to employees.
• Only if a teacher has given permission is a student allowed to leave the room.

Unless : used to say that something can only happen or be true in a particular situation

You won't get paid for time off unless you have a doctor's note.

• I won't tell them—not unless you say I can.
• Unless I'm mistaken, she was back at work yesterday.
• He hasn't got any hobbies—unless you call watching TV a hobby.
• You won’t succeed unless you work hard.
• Have a cup of tea—unless you'd prefer a cold drink?

Unless is used to talk about a situation that could happen, or something that could be true, in the future. If you know that something has not happened or that something is not true, use if… not If you weren't always in such a hurry (= but you are), your work would be much better. • Your work would be much better unless you were always in such a hurry.

Provided that: used to say what must happen or be done to make it possible for something else to happen

• We'll buy everything you produce, provided of course the price is right.
• Provided that you have the money in your account, you can withdraw up to £300 a day.
• I was allowed to go off by myself provided that I promised to be careful.

Providing (that) is more common in speaking; provided (that) is more formal and more common in written language:

• You can get a senior citizen’s reduction providing you’ve got a railcard.
• They may do whatever they like provided that it is within the law.

Assuming that : used to suppose that something is true so that you can talk about what the results might be

• Assuming (that) he’s still alive, how old would he be now?
• I hope to go to college next year, always assuming I pass my exams.

Even if : despite the possibility that; no matter whether

• I'll get there, even if I have to walk.
• Even if you have already bought your ticket, you will still need to wait in line.

In case : We use in case to talk about things we should do in order to be prepared for possible future situations:

• Shall I keep some chicken salad for your brother in case he’s hungry when he gets here? 
• In case I forget later, here are the keys to the garage. 
• I have my umbrella with me in case it rains.

Lest : in order to prevent something from happening

• He gripped his brother's arm lest he be trampled by the mob.
• Lest anyone should doubt my story, I have brought documents to attest to its truth.
• Study hard lest you should fail.

Lest usually takes a verb in the subjunctive Lest anyone doubt my story… • Lest anyone doubts my story… • Lest anyone doubted my story… It is also acceptable to use should Lest anyone should doubt my story…

Or and otherwise

We often use or and otherwise with conditional meanings:

• You’ve got to start studying, or you’ll fail all those exams. (If you don’t start studying, you will fail the exams.)

• We’d better send it express, otherwise it’ll take days. (If we do not send it express, it will take days.)

Supposing

Supposing may be used with a conditional meaning. It can be used in first, second or third conditional sentences. The speaker invites the listener to imagine a situation:

• Supposing I don’t arrive till after midnight, will the guest-house still be open? (Imagine if I don’t arrive till after midnight …)

• Supposing you lost your passport, you’d have to go to the embassy, wouldn’t you?

• Supposing he hadn’t recognised us – he might never have spoken to us.

Suppose, supposing and what if

We use suppose, supposing and what if + present verb form to make suggestions about what might happen:

• A: What time shall we meet?
  
• B: Suppose we meet in the offices downstairs at four o’clock? 
• A: That’s perfect. I’ll let the others know.

• Supposing I don’t bring my car and you and I travel together. That would save us half the cost of petrol and parking.

• A: The electricity has gone. There must be a power cut.

• B: What if we find the candles and put them around the room?

• A: Okay. Good idea. Do you know where they are?

When we are less certain, we use suppose, supposing and what if + past form to talk about future possibility:

• Suppose we asked Mary to baby-sit? Do you think she’d do it? (not as certain as Suppose we ask Mary to baby-sit?)

• Supposing someone else wrote the essay. How would we know? (not as certain as Supposing someone else writes the essay …)

• A: What if I gave up working full-time. I’d love that.

• B: You’re joking surely!!

When we refer to something that did not happen (something hypothetical), we use the past perfect:

• Suppose we hadn’t brought our umbrellas. (We did bring our umbrellas.)

• Supposing they had closed the road. Would that have been a good idea? (They didn’t close the road.)

• What if I had accidentally told Maria about the party! That would have ruined the surprise. (I didn’t tell Maria about the party.)

Warning:

We use be supposed to to talk about obligations and arrangements, not suggestions.

You are supposed to put money in the parking meter!

We use if only to express a strong wish that things could be different. It means the same as I wish but is stronger. We use it to talk about past, present and future unreal conditions.We use if only + past verb forms to talk about a wish for the present:

• If only he knew the truth. (he doesn’t know the truth, but he wishes he did)

• Not: If only he knows the truth.

• If only there was something she could do or say to help.

• Not: If only there is something she could do or say to help.

We sometimes use were instead of was in more formal situations:

• If only she weren’t so tired. (If only she wasn’t so tired.)

To talk about a wish for the future or to show a contrast between how things are and how we would like them to be, we use if only + would + infinitive without to:

• If only someone would buy the house.

• If only they would talk to each other.

We use if only + past perfect to talk about a wish to change something that has already happened:

• If only he had listened to what his friends had been telling him. (He didn’t listen.)
  If only Anna had been able to come. (Anna wasn’t able to come.)

As long as, So long as, On condition that, etc.

Sometimes we need to impose specific conditions or set limits on a situation. In these cases, conditional clauses can begin with phrases such as as long as, so long as, only if, on condition that, providing (that), provided (that).

As long as is more common in speaking; so long as and on condition that are more formal and more common in writing:

• You can play in the living room as long as you don’t make a mess.

• So long as a tiger stands still, it is invisible in the jungle.

• The bank lent the company 100,000 pounds on condition that they repaid the money within six months.

Manner

How : “How” describes the way that something is or happens.

• You can live your life how you want.
• Tell me the story of how you and mom fell in love. 

As if | As though : in a way that suggests something​

• He behaved as if nothing had happened.
• It sounds as though you had a good time.
• It's my birthday. As if you didn't know!
• ‘Don't say anything.’ ‘As if I would!’ (= surely you do not expect me to)
• They look as though they’re heading for divorce.
• At sunset, the sun looks as if it is going down.

Reason
As, Because or Since

As, because and since are conjunctions. As, because and since all introduce subordinate clauses. They connect the result of something with its reason.

Because is more common than as and since, both in writing and speaking. When we use because, we are focusing on the reason. 

We often use as and since when we want to focus more on the result than the reason. As and since are more formal than because. 

We usually put a comma before since after the main clause:

• I did it because he told me to.
• Because it was so late, he found it unacceptable to send them all away.
• I love Matisse’s work because he uses color so brilliantly.
• We thought that, since we were in the area, we'd stop by and see them.
• Since we’ve got a few minutes to wait for the train, let’s have a cup of coffee.
• Since everything can be done from home with computers and telephones, there’s no need to dress up for work any more.
• As everyone already knows each other, there’s no need for introductions. We’ll get straight into the business of the meeting.
• I hope they’ve decided to come as I wanted to hear about their India trip.
• They’re rather expensive, since they’re quite hard to find.

So that or in order that

We use so that and in order that to talk about purpose. We often use them with modal verbs (can, would, will, etc.). So that is far more common than in order that, and in order that is more formal:

• I’ll go by car so that I can take more luggage.
• We left a message with his neighbour so that he would know we’d called.
• In order that you can sign the form, please print it out and mail it to this address.

We often leave out that after so in informal situations:

• I’ve made some sandwiches so (that) we can have a snack on the way.

When referring to the future, we can use the present simple or will/’ll after so that. We usually use the present simple after in order that to talk about the future:

• I’ll post the CD today so that you get it by the weekend. 

• (or … so that you will get it …)

• We will send you a reminder in order that you arrive on time for your appointment. 

• (or … so that you arrive on time … or … so that you’ll arrive on time …)

So that (but not in order that) can also mean ‘with the result that’:

• The birds return every year around March, so that April is a good time to see them.